Alex Stubbings: Climate Change Adaptation

Alex Stubbings, the GfGD Blog's Climate Change Correspondent, has been writing a series of posts introducing our readers to some of the key issues within the important field of climate change and its relationship to development. He has posted about 'Earth's Changing Climate', 'What is Driving Climatic Change Today?' and 'Climate Change in Developing Countries.' In the final part of this introductory series, Alex outlines the subject of 'climate change adaptation.'

-----------------------------------------------

Climate Change (4) - Climate Change Adaptation

In addressing actions to mitigate the effects of climate change the global community has opted for two solutions: (i) MITIGATION, popular during the 1990s and early 2000s; and (ii) ADAPTATION, which has been gaining increased attention and focus over the past decade. Now it is apparent that no one solution will decrease the risks associated with climate change; we need both mitigation and adaptation.

Adaptation is a concept that all geologists will be familiar with: small changes to an organism or species over (geologic) time, that, eventually, lead to a new character being developed and a new species. These changes, or evolutions, take time to become noticeable. So in the social world, our world, adaptation is best understood from an ecological perspective,

“[An] adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.”

Therefore as adaptation has become more important over the last decade it has also emerged that adaptation is needs and context specific. In other words everyone, even rich countries needs to adapt. The manner of that adaptation, however, is dependent upon the context and situation. Thus adaptation interventions, i.e. projects that are implemented within countries, regions, communities and households will vary accordingly due to the requirements of each actor.

It is becoming increasingly apparent that successful societies and actors adapt continually. Think of successful companies like Microsoft and Apple, they continually renew themselves and innovate, that is essentially what “successful” adaptation is. However, as with all things in the social world it becomes slightly more complicated than that. The important point to identify is that successful adaptation is continual and that you anticipate risks,  ex-ante, as opposed to acting afterwards: ex-post, and here.

Geologists can assist in adaptation projects in a number of ways. We can influence technical discussions within university departments, government inquiries, act as consulting experts, and so forth. And this could be simply as, extra, technical capacity. Or we can be involved in, so-called, “hard-engineering” projects (actually mitigation measures aimed at reducing the level of pCO2), which aim to address climate change on a planetary scale such as geo-engineering, carbon capture and storage, and at the local level assist in “climate-proofing” development projects, see here and here. In the latter case this is best demonstrated by geotechnical experts assisting a developing country in building a new road or tunnel (see image, right). They can provide the expertise that might be lacking within that country, and also advise their clients on the likely impacts of, for instance, increased rainfall or drought periods on the newly built infrastructure.

All-in-all climate change and climate change adaptation, often abbreviated to CCA, is a highly dynamic and complex field. It requires a new type of geoscientist to apply their knowledge to the challenges of conventional development, and at the same time, think holistically about the impacts of climate change on their project and community. It is no surprise then that geoscientists that are embracing a holistic education and experiences, will like those countries and communities that adapt successfully, will be able to exploit new opportunities and be at the forefront of an issue that, as we become technologically more complex, will manifest itself more and more over the coming decades.

Friday Photo (28) - Retreating Glaciers

CANADA: GLACIAL RETREAT
Athabasca Glacier in Columbia Ice field in Alberta, Canada. This picture was taken approximately from the place where the edge of Glacier was 100 years ago. (Image and Information Courtesy of Andres Marandi - Imaggeo.net)

Alex Stubbings: Climate Change in Developing Countries

Alex Stubbings, the GfGD Blog's Climate Change Correspondent, has been writing a series of posts introducing our readers to some of the key issues within the important field of climate change and its relationship to development. He has posted about Earth's changing climate, and what is driving climatic change today - his next post looks at climate change in developing countries...

-----------------------------------------------

Climate Change (3) - Climate Change in Developing Countries

Human modification of the global climate system will, unfortunately, adversely and most severely impact those people in developing countries. Why is this so? Simply put developing countries are exposed to a number of human and natural risks; climate change just happens to be one of these risks. Therefore we can define, and speak of climate change as a risk amplifier.

The most significant aspect of climate change for developing countries is that it has the potential to impact upon development investments, projects and hinder the development process. As such climate change will negatively impact the aspirations and long-term objectives of developing countries, namely to grow, develop and more importantly, lift their people by themselves out of long-term abstract poverty. In fact, poverty, and those who occupy “absolute” and “hardcore” poverty levels in developing countries, whether middle-income or Least Developed Countries, are likely to be hit the hardest by changes, even slight changes, in the mean of climate.

In an effort to combat any foreseeable climate change the governments of the world came together in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit, an outcome of which was the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, or: UNFCCC, FCCC and the Convention. The Convention is an important institution for members of the United Nations. Countries who signed up to it acknowledge its core principle, and overriding reason for existence,

“...To prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system and to limit any future temperature rise to 2 degrees celcius above pre-industrial.”

Extract from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Article 2.A brief summary can be found here. (Pre-industrial being taken as before 1750 when pCO2 emissions were in-line with previous inter-stadial limits of 280ppm)

This one single paragraph is important for all of our species, but in particular for those developing countries that comprise the Least Developed Countries (LDCs). This group is the most at risk, or vulnerable, to the effects of an enhanced greenhouse effect, which is being forced by the economic activities of humans.

Climate change is a significant issue for LDCs as they are characterised by lacking in various capacities including financially. Issues that are exacerbated by climate change include all of the thematic topics on GfGD’s web site, and especially: water and sanitation, health, education, gender issues, agriculture and geo-hazards. Climate change could amplify these, and other natural hazards, altering the effects of their impacts, recurrence times and severity.

Furthermore, we know from archaeological studies and Holocene environmental change that societies that are highly dependent, like most of the LDCs, upon natural resources, for example: fish, forestry, agriculture and so forth, are more likely to be adversely affected, see here and here. Compare natural resource economies to post-industrial economies like: service sectors, creative industries and knowledge economies. These, it can be said, are more resilient, to a degree, than those based solely around natural resource sectors.

However, developing countries, and drawing on my own experience from Bangladesh, are on the front lines of climate change. These places will be impacted first, such as Bangladesh and the Small Island Developing States (SIDS). These countries are trying to take-charge of their own future by challenging leading paradigms from being victims to agents of change, see here. Interestingly, climate change manifests itself in developing countries first, least responsible for the problem, yet they will have to adapt first as well. So as geoscientists if we want to know what the cutting-edge in climate change adaptation, or for that matter the early signs of climate change impacts, we have to look to what is being designed, implemented and experienced within LDCs and other developing countries.


Small States - Including many developing nations vulnerable to changes in the Earth's climate

Alex Stubbings: What's Driving Climatic Change Today?

Alex Stubbings is our GfGD Blog Climate Change Correspondent, and will be blogging on all matters related to climate change, climate change adaptation, and the important role geoscience can play in this discipline. Alex has a BSc in Environmental Geology from the University of Birmingham and an MSc in Climate Change from the University of East Anglia, as well as experience working in Bangladesh. In the first of special series, a fortnight ago he wrote about the Earth's Changing Climate. Today he looks at what is driving climatic change today...

-----------------------------------------------

Keeling Curve (Source: Wiki)

Climate Change (2) - What's driving climatic change today?

How do we know that climatic change is occurring today? Well this is extremely nuanced and requires multiple lines of enquiry to provide robust and reliable data/ information. Firstly, there’s the longest climatological record in the world: the Central England Temperature record, dating back to the 17th Century – despite heterogeneities in the data. Secondly there’s the work of chemists and atmospheric chemists from the late 19th and early 20th Century’s – this book provides an authoritative historical narrative, (and also see here) - who provided the necessary empiricism to prove that the natural greenhouse effect exists, artificially increasing Earth’s ambient temperature within the habitable zone. Thirdly, and most crucially, the work of David Keeling: the Keeling Curve. This curve alone provides significant and robust evidence that pCO2 levels have been increasing since monitoring began in the early 1950s.

However, the backdrop to current climatic change is, overwhelmingly, due to global economic development since the Industrial Revolution, and to a lesser extent, but still as important, the Agricultural Revolution – (also see here).

Source: Wiki

The exploration and exploitation of hydrocarbon reserves is predominantly responsible for increased climatic variability that we have been observing since the latter half of the 20th Century. However, whilst through their combustion hydrocarbons provide the increased majority of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, land-use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) also contribute to the problem.

Whilst CO2 is labelled the main agent of contemporary climatic change water vapour, methane (CH4, see here and here) and CFCs all have a role to play. Water vapour is more significant than CO2 in a warming world, and has a much stronger global warming potential. This article from GSA Today does a very good job of explaining how the increased concretion of natural, and un-natural, greenhouse gases in the atmosphere results in climatic change observed around the world today.

In many regions of the world today, even in OECD nations, climatic change is already having adverse effects on peoples livelihoods for example: melting glaciers, sea level rise, erratic rainfall, unusual temperatures and an increase in storms are severely affecting communities. Climatic change will negatively impact the world’s poorest as they have the least resilience and coping capacity to deal with sudden disasters or creeping hazards. Quite often their livelihoods are severely affected and they’re pushed back into poverty. The challenge for geoscientists in an ever changing, and fast changing world, is to utilise their knowledge of past climatic events, such as the Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum –despite the factors forcing climatic change being very different. This knowledge can be used to work with policy makers and development practitioners to deliver real, scaleable and affordable solutions to communities most vulnerable and exposed to the detrimental effects of climate change.

(Alex will be writing about the impact of climate change on developing countries in his next post on Monday 9th April) 

Alex Stubbings: Earth's Changing Climate

Editor: It is a pleasure to introduce to our readers, our new GfGD Blog Climate Change Correspondent - Alex Stubbings. Alex will be blogging on all matters related to climate change, climate change adaptation, and the important role geoscience can play in this discipline. Alex has a BSc in Environmental Geology from the University of Birmingham and an MSc in Climate Change from the University of East Anglia, as well as experience working in Bangladesh. 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

 Climate Change (1) - Earth’s Changing Climate

Open up any geological text book, academic or popular science and one thing is immediately obvious: the climate of planet Earth isn’t stationary. Over vast swathes of time Earth’s climate naturally fluctuates between Icehouse and Hothouse, examples of which include: Neoproterozoic glaciations – so called Snowball/ Slushball Earth (Icehouse) and the Carboniferous (Hothouse). These are two examples outside of the Quaternary glacial cycle. In fact variations in Earth’s climate, along with the Great Oxidation Event, are linked to the evolution of life (also see here).

Source: Richard P. Hoblitt (USGS)

When it comes to climatic change over the eons what’s responsible? Volcanoes play a central role, for example the Siberian and Deccan Traps (at the End-Permian and End-Cretaceous). The actions of these flood basalts, over time, contributed significant quantities of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. More recent examples include: Toba, 75,000 kyr (resulting in the human bottle neck); Tambora, 1815 (the following year was known as the year without a summer); and Pinatubo, 1992. The oceans play a central role also. They act as a ‘sleeping giant’ due, namely, to their thermal inertia which operates over timescales of 1000s of years, and ultimately reorganises thermohaline circulation systems. On shorter time scales thermal expansion can inundate low lying continental shelves. And lastly, macro-geologic processes: plate tectonics and continental drift result in climate change that plays out over time scales of 250 million years. For instance: Gondwanaland, Rodinia, Laurasia, Pangea, and the creation of isthmuses like that at Panama.

So it comes as nothing new that Earth’s climate changes, waxing and waning, from one state to another. This is but part of several processes that act over scales incomprehensible to us, but preserved forever in the rock record.

Microfossils (Source: Psammophile)

We know about changes in Earth’s climate not only from the rock record but from other palaeo-proxies: Speleothems, Ice cores, Varves, palynology, charcoal (analysis), dendrochronology (tree rings), macro and micro fossils, there is a wide range of proxies available to the geoscientist. Of course there are huge differences in resolution, spatial scale, and, importantly, uncertainty. Of the proxies listed above the most useful to re-tell Earth’s climate over the eons are macro and micro fossils. Think here about the End-Permian mass extinction or the End-Cretaceous, and the Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum –that’s where macro and micro fossils are most useful. The other proxies listed above deteriorate over time scales of 1000s >500,000 years: even ice cores!

Zooming in on our present situation and the geology explaining why we’re in another glacial period is very sound; here's one of my favourite papers to do with it. However, the most notable period of glacial activity is that of the Pleistocene. Since this epoch begun in Late-Quaternary time both hemispheres have seen vast sheets of ice accumulate. In fact we’re still in an Ice Age as there’s still ice present on Earth’s surface, however we’re in an interstadial: a warm period within an Ice Age. Other interstadials that Holocene workers know of include the Medieval Warm Period, where the Norse had settlements in Greenland.

The most recent stage of Quaternary time, the Holocene, is marked with stark climatic reversals. Starting from the Younger Dryas, which marked the termination of the last glacial period at 11,500 kyr, Earth’s climate has experienced marked changes, returning us to for a time to incipient glacial conditions. For instance the 8.2 kyr event in the Northern hemisphere, evidenced by marine drilling expeditions in the North Atlantic and ecosystem reorganisation over Europe and the Middle East; the End African Humid Period –which saw the intertropical convergence zone move northwards, resulting in the desertification of the Sahara; the widespread 4.2 kyr event which resulted in numerous civilisations collapsing throughout the low middle latitudes around the world.

Hopefully, as you can see climate has changed on Earth since time-immemorial and over different spatial scales. Climate has probably fluctuated like that seen in the Holocene over other periods of time, however due to the resolution and quality of data available to us we’re not able to differentiate these episodes.

International Dimensions of Climate Change

Recently the UK Government's Chief Scientific Officer (Sir John Beddington), and the Government Office for Science, published a document titled International Dimensions of Climate Change, outlining how international climate change may affect the UK and the required response from policy-makers. Even if we do not see significant changes of climate in the UK, there are likely to be significant effects to our foreign policy, security, economy etc from climate change overseas.

The report includes an excellent overview of global climate change (Chapter 2) including key tipping points (page 28) and key effects (page 30-), as well as chapters on the threats and challenges to the UK from international climate change. The report convincingly argues that the global nature of finance, trade, resources, infrastructure and health mean that a changing climate overseas could cause significant challenges to the UK. It also argues that the knowledge and skills of UK engineers, businesses, research institutes and other organisations mean that the UK is well placed to play a leading role in a post-carbon world. There are a number of UK-based geologists, geographers and other scientists playing a significant role on the world stage in this field.

Another aspect of this report, covered the need for behavioural change in the UK. A while ago The Times published an article in which it quoted this report and Sir John Beddington, stating that climate-related disasters should be used by the Government to persuade British voters to accept unpopular policies for cutting carbon emissions. The report argues that there appears to be growing scepticism of climate change, and a low percentage of people believing that individual responsibility is required. The report states:

"Effective, consistent communication and education linking climate change impacts to events overseas allows the UK government to encourage domestic behavioural change and the adoption of low-carbon technologies."

Whilst in theory this sounds like a reasonable recommendation, I have some concerns that this could lead to further scepticism if claims are not made in a responsible manner, without the backing of good evidence and science. There is scepticism when overseas events are declared to be as a result of 'climate change' by the media, NGOs or Government, without any reasonable evidence. Some events most likely are linked to climate change (amongst other things), but credible and reliable evidence must be used to show this. Whilst this report emphasises a number of times the uncertainty in this field, the difficulties and caveats involved within modelling such complex systems, and that policies should be science and evidence based - Government Ministers (as well as the media, NGOs and others) do not always clarify their statements in such a way.

This report is definitely worth reading, very helpful and well qualified. I would certainly hope that if Government's implement some of the recommendations in this report they do so in a responsible manner. Government's must base their conclusions on good evidence-based science - and do not simplify what are often complex issues. We would urge the Government to speak on these issues in a responsible way in order to effectively communicate these important issues. 

Key Themes: Climate Change

The 'Key Themes' posts are a series of short articles outlining the role that geologists have in various aspects of global development.

Research into climate change and its impacts on communities across the world is currently being done by many institutions across the world, and eagerly awaited and examined by NGOs and government agencies. It is perhaps one of the biggest issues in this generation, with huge questions such as - what can we do, and how will it effect us?

Climate Change: Fact or Fiction?

There is significant scientific evidence that suggests that human induced climate change is a reality. There are natural fluctuations in the earth’s climate (leading to ice-ages etc)… however research suggests fairly conclusively that humans are accelerating climate change through the release of various emissions.

The Geological Society of London has released a briefing document outlining the geological evidence; this is aimed at non-specialists as well as geologists. It is available to read here. Geologists play a significant role in understanding past climates, and the patterns that occur over time. This understanding of the past aids the modelling of future climatic conditions and the impact changes may have.

How is climate change related to international development?

It is generally accepted that the carbon-footprints of people in developed countries are significantly greater than the carbon-footprints of people in developing countries. The UN has suggested that the world’s poorest produce a small fraction of the world’s greenhouse gases – as the graph below indicates.

From: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/air_co2_emissions.htm

Yet research also suggests that the effects and impacts of climate change will disproportionately affect the poor – that the poorest are the ones least able to deal with environmental change. Global warming, as well as changing temperatures, will lead to:

·      Higher sea levels and flooding of low-lying coasts

·      Changed patterns of rainfall

·      Increased ocean acidity

·      Decreased oxygen levels in the oceans

Adapting to these effects requires significant investment, well beyond the means of many developing countries. A publication by the Parliamentary Office of Science & Technology (Postnote No. 269, 2006) suggests developing countries would have to deal with the following environmental impacts:

·      Changes in rainfall patterns

·      Increased frequency and severity of floods, droughts, storms and heat waves

·      Changes in growing seasons and regions

·      Changes in water quality and quantity

·      Sea level rises

·      Melting of Glaciers

These impacts are likely to have result in changes to water resources, agriculture, human health, infrastructure, food security, settlements and natural disaster planning.

What role do geologists have to play in this sector?

As previously outlined geologists play a significant role in modelling the impacts of future climatic conditions and impacts through their research into palaeoclimate. Geologists also have a role in both understanding how climate changes will impact on several key areas, and what can be done to adapt/mitigate/reduce the impacts within these areas. A few examples of such key areas are listed below:

Groundwater: As global warming develops, how will this affect supply of groundwater and the quality of groundwater? How will sea-level rises change the salinity of coastal aquifers? The British Geological Survey are undertaking researching into questions such as these, you can read about the likely impact on groundwater supplies in Africa here.

Coastal Flooding & Erosion: Modelling of flooding, as a result of increase in sea levels is being done, as is an examination of how climate change will impact coastal erosion. Both of these can result in a loss of settlement and livelihoods – potentially driving problems in food and water security.

Natural Disasters: The effects of climate change on disasters ranging from floods and droughts, to wildfires and storms, to earthquakes and tsunamis is not altogether understood. Research indicates an increase in the unpredictability of rainfall in terms of intensity and duration – increasing the frequency of extreme droughts and floods. This post, written in February, highlights how historical changing of climate resulted in extremely severe droughts. 


Geologists also have a key role in ensuring that decisions made in this field are made on the basis of good science. A lot of processes are being attributed to climate change with very little or no scientific evidence. Climate change adaptations and work in communities to build resilience should be done on the basis of a thorough understanding of the area and science - otherwise they could increase vulnerability and do more harm than good. Climate change should be put in its proper context, alongside the various other hazards and vulnerabilities that communities face.

The Role of Geologists in Humanitarian Emergency Response

As reported on Monday, a review into the UK’s response to humanitarian emergencies has been conducted by Lord (Paddy) Ashdown and released yesterday. The review outlines ways in which the UK can improve its response to such emergencies, and anticipate such emergencies. Incorporating these into the core of DFID’s work is crucial – making sure their development work and humanitarian assistance are integrated. 

The report highlights seven threads to the approach needed to be adopted including:

1.   A more anticipatory approach – using science to aid in the prediction of and preparation for such emergencies. It is important to be preparing for disasters as well as reacting to them (including equipping at-risk governments/civil society with the means to act).

2.   Resilience – working with local people to strengthen the community’s capacity to be resilient to an event. This was highlighted as an area that needs to become much more central to DFIDs development activities. Resilience will mean the damage is less lasting and communities can recover more quickly.

The report cites an interesting example where Mozambique asked in 2006 for £2million pounds to invest in preparing for the impacts of floods – which it could not receive. Soon after, the international community had to spend £60million pounds responding to a flood season

3.   Improve the strategic, operational and political leadership of the international humanitarian system, including pushing for reform within the UN’s response procedures.

4.    Innovate to become more efficient and effective – using the best of new technologies and science, new processes and practices, and new ideas from those affected. More investment needs to happen in research and evidence.

5.   Increase transparency and accountability towards both donor and host country populations. More conversation needs to occur between donors and communities to ascertain exactly what they need, how they can be helped and who can help them. Vulnerable people can often be overlooked. On the flip side, measuring the impacts of resources is a key way to ensure accountability to donors.

6.   Create new humanitarian partnerships to allow DFID to better influence and work within an increasingly complex humanitarian system. The need for multilateral work in this area is crucial, and while DFID is commended for adopting this approach it suggests they should work to enable new partnerships with emerging nations, NGOs, faith groups etc

7.   Defend and strengthen the humanitarian space – humanitarian workers should be granted access and protection as they give assistance in areas affected by conflict. DFID should work with agencies that can access and help those in need and humanitarian aid should not be politicised.

The full report can be found here.

Over the past couple of years we have witnessed some awful natural disasters that have required significant humanitarian assistance. Earthquakes have rocked developing countries such as Haiti, as well as more developed countries such as Chile, New Zealand and Japan. Floods have been catastrophic in Pakistan, and Australia, and large landslides and flooding have hit Brazil. The way in which the UK responds to such disasters – especially in developing countries where the effects disproportionately affect the population is very important. The UK is the second largest bilateral global humanitarian donor, although in terms of its percentage of GNI trails behind a number of countries.

The results of the Humanitarian Emergency Response Review are broadly welcomed. As developing countries are urbanising, vulnerability to disaster is in many ways increasing and steps need to be taken to ensure the international community’s response to disasters matures, as well as the anticipation of disasters and building of resilience develops.

Geologists have a very important role to play in the factors of anticipation, resilience and innovation.

ANTICIPATION: In disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, landslides etc – geologists study the science of how they occur and can use their skills to understand and recognise vulnerable areas. While prediction is not always possible, understanding of vulnerable areas, frequency and magnitude can be understood to a certain degree

For example: The study of palaeoseismology can provide information on the frequency of historical earthquakes and their magnitude. This information can help inform governments and civil societies to prepare. The UK for example knows to expect earthquakes up to approximately magnitude 6 following the M5.3-5.9 earthquake in the late 1500’s (although this size is extremely rare (See here for more info on UK Seismic Hazard). In Chile, they must prepare for earthquakes significantly bigger than this, at Magnitude 9 or greater.

Data for some hazardous areas can be significant, but often in developing countries the data is gathered at a much slower rate, and so is less sizeable, as governments can invest less in their own monitoring and evaluation programmes. Geologists can play a major role in building up knowledge of the mechanisms of hazards, their appearance in history and the likely impacts of the hazard.  

From: http://www.afronline.org/?p=3835

RESILIENCE: Building resilience to minimise the damage of the hazard is another area of humanitarian work that geologists can play a crucial role in. The education of communities to understand how hazards are triggered can help people recognise the warning signs for a number of hazards. Understanding the relationship between landslides and water can help communities construct simple drainage mechanisms, avoid the undercutting of slopes and ensure deforestation doesn’t occur on vulnerable slopes. Understanding the relationship between earthquakes and tsunami’s was not understood by many communities in the tragic 2004 Boxing Day tsunami in Indonesia, understanding the risk of a tsunami following an earthquake can give communities that vital extra time to move inland. Education can involve a community led, participatory approach in order to build a sustainable programme.

As well as education, improving physical structures can develop resilience. Geologists can play a major role in identifying which areas of the city are must vulnerable and how resilience methods can change from place to place. The types of buildings required to withstand earthquakes will differ from one rock-type to another for example.   

INNOVATION:  With regards to innovation, geologists are doing various pieces of research, and must do more, to improve the understanding and preparation for humanitarian emergencies. Geologists and other scientists must work closely with social scientists in order to develop and improve better risk assessments for developing countries – including the development of multi-hazard risk assessments. Research into the effects of global climate change at a local scale, and mitigating any risks, is fundamental research to be collated, as is how increased urbanisation will impact the consequences of disasters.

The response DFID gives to this review, and the speed at which they respond, will be very interesting. DFID must take seriously the importance of Disaster Risk Reduction, and the economic benefits of it, and ensure it is integrate into the core of its work. The crucial role that scientists can play in this sector must also be recognised further – not only in terms of health and agriculture – but also with regards to geology and engineering.