Newswatch: April 2012

There have been a few relevant and interesting stories in the news recently, that many of our readers may be interested in:

'Huge' Water Resource in Africa

The British Geological Survey (BGS) have been working on a range of quantitative groundwater maps for the African continent. These suggest that many countries described as being 'water scarce' actually have sme good groundwater resources. Whilst the researchers are not advocating large scale extraction of this water, there is suggestion that the resources can be used in small, low-yield boreholes in rural areas. 

Mexico Raises 'Alert Level' on Volcano

A major volcano in Mexico has begun spewing ash, steam and burning rock, prompting Mexico to raise their alert level. In the past eruptions from the volcano, Popocatapetl, have resulted in many local communities being evacuated.

West African Food Crisis

This crisis hitting many nations in West Africa is impacting many people, and yet has a relatively low profile across the UK. Read more about the drought in the Sahel and the impacts on Oxfam's website.

BBC Panorama

This week the BBC Panorama show focused on the problem of acid pollution into a local river in the Democratic Republic of Congo. You can find a brief highlight here and the full documentary here. 

Friday Photo (29) - Environmental Problems from Mining

CANADA: ACID-MINE DRAINAGE
Acidic waste-water can cause major environmental problems in mining, as demonstrated in this picture from Ontario, Canada by Black Tusk (Source: Wikipedia)

Dan Sharpe: Rare Earth Elements in China - An Under-Publicised Resource

Source: USDA

Dan Sharpe, our regular columnist and GfGD University Ambassador in Leeds, writes about the importance of Rare Earth Metals and challenges surrounding them. You can read Dan's full archive of posts here.

The rare earth element (REE) is a name given to a set of seventeen elements in the centre of the periodic table. Although REEs are relatively abundant in the rocks on Earth their geochemical properties means that they are rarely concentrated to such an extent that they are economical to produce. In recent studies it has been exposed that China could hold as much as fifty percent of the world’s REE reserves, ensuring they dominate the world market in this sector.

Rare-earths are used in just about every electronic device you own. They are found in computer memory, DVDs, rechargeable batteries and mobile phones amongst other things, and are often overlooked with regards to their importance in our technology rich lifestyle. With the news emerging that China is so rich in these metals, can it not be suggested that other developing nations could hold under-explored areas that are rich in REEs such as Scandium, Cerium and Neodymium. The problem however, is that countries such as China are developing rapidly and therefore need sources of income and natural resources themselves, and have strictly regulated the export of REEs. This recently culminated in a complaint filed by the United States, Japan and the European Union against China (who currently control ninety-five percent of the global production of REEs) to the World Trade Organisation (WTO).

The complaint outlines that as well as modern technologies, REEs are crucial to generating new, greener energy sources. The U.S. Department of Energy says that the release of new clean energy sources could be dramatically slowed by the supply challenges facing the REE industry. Photovoltaic films, regenerative braking in hybrid cars, larger scale wind turbines and highly efficient fluorescent lighting all require a constant and increasing supply of these materials and a new trade action aims to loosen China’s regulations with regards to rare-earth metal exports which other nations claim has kept the unit cost of these materials relatively high outside the country itself.

So this situation looks like it is under control, and a dramatically larger amount of rare-earths will soon become available if this trade action is effective. Is it enough though? Studies are showing that we may soon be experiencing a shortage of this valuable resource due to supply and demand issues. Admittedly this is largely down to China’s restrictions on export, but this is not the only problem facing the industry. In 2011, an Australian mining company was suggested to be finishing a US$230 million plant refining slightly radioactive Lanthanide in Malaysia however the authorities confirmed in October 2011 that no license was given to finish the development. It was claimed that the plant, based in Kuantan, would meet the demand for one third of REE production, excluding China.



NASA: Acid Mine Drainage (Rio Tinto River, Spain)



REE production can have serious environmental effects if not properly managed, and in the end this fear was what proved to be the downfall of the Kuantan plant. The tailings produced are often slightly radioactive and toxic acids are required during the refinement process. Even the major mine in China, reported to supply much of the world’s rare-earths, is thought to have cause significant damage to the environment with fears that the toxic waste may even have been released into the waters of the area.

Rare-earth metal production can be a controversial, yet drastically important industry. With China holding the vast majority of resources close to their chest, it is important to branch out and explore new areas to meet an exponentially growing demand. This industry is severely challenged by environmental concern, and quite rightly, but with proper management the world needs to focus on the exploration of these elements in order to look towards a more efficient, sustainable planet. You can forget oil exploration for now, the new controversial extraction industry has arrived, and it will certainly be sticking around for a while to come.

Further Reading

POST Note: Strategically Important Metals

Geoscientist Article - REE Metals

Geological Society Briefing - REE Metals  

Guest Blog: Is There Blood In Your Mobile?

Rosalie Tostevin is a PhD student and GfGD Ambassador at University College London (UCL). Her current research is looking at the link between ocean chemistry and the emergence of the first animal life. She has a strong interest in improving science communication and the ethical behaviour of the geoscience industry. Rosalie writes today about the terrible situation in central Africa regarding conflict minerals and the negative impact on communities - her post finishes with a strong call to action.

I recently went to a screening of Frank Poulson’s film, “Blood in the Mobile”, which investigates the use of conflict minerals in electronic products. Here I review the main message of the film and discuss the role for geoscientists may play in resolving the conflict.

RC (Source: CIA)

The wilderness of Kivu province, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), is littered with mines. The land is rich in coltan (tantalum ore - an essential component in many electronics) and many other minerals that the developed world depends on. Young men and children stay down unstable mine shafts for up to a week at a time in crowded unsanitary conditions. Unregulated soldiers earn money by taxing the miners every time they pass through control points and then take the product across the border to be distributed around the world.

Profit from the mining industry is fuelling the various militia groups in the area, a hangover from the end of the civil war in 2003. War is good for business - not only in the DRC, but in the West too. The US, China and Western Europe are making large amounts of profit from equipping them with arms.

Militia groups are outside of UN control, despite peacekeeping troops in the region constituting the UN’s second largest source of expenditure in 2011. Many of us were recently reminded of the situation in central Africa by the Kony 2012 campaign. The Lords Resistance Army (LRA) is now predominantly operating in eastern Congo alongside many other groups. There are countless stories of on-going war crimes and human rights abuses. Rape is being used as a weapon to tear apart communities and clear them off the land in order to ensure access to natural resources. 

Joseph Kabila (Source: US Defense)

Charities such as Oxfam and Save the Children are providing short-term relief and support for the victims, who are overwhelmingly women and children. However, there has not been enough focus on the underlying drivers of the humanitarian and developmental crisis. The militia groups are uncontrollable because of the unstable and corrupt political system. President Joseph Kabila came to power in the DRC’s first democratic elections in 2006. He also claimed victory in the recent election, which is riddled with accusations of rigging. The recognition of his leadership by the international community has angered many citizens of the DRC, both in the DRC and around the world. Protests have been organised every two days at the DRC embassy in London but have been largely unreported by the British press. Shana Mongwanga-Eloko, from ‘Africa lives!’ has been promoting campaigns driven by Congolese women. The Congolese people are fighting back, though if you watched the Kony 2012 video, you would be forgiven for thinking only westerners are trying to ‘save the Congo’.

How can we make a difference? Certainly not by sharing a viral video and it’s not as simple as a donation to charity either. There are two groups benefitting from this conflict: electronics companies and arms dealers. We need to legislate to ensure electronics companies publish their supply chain so that consumers can make informed ethical choices.

Blood in the Mobile

The geoscience community needs to develop a method of tracing mineral ores using geochemical fingerprints and radiometric dating techniques. Current efforts are focused on laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, which generates a chemical profile that can then be compared to a master sample from a known location. Once the ore is processed it can no longer be fingerprinted, so it is necessary to test ores at an early stage, perhaps even in the field. However, no laboratory in the DRC is currently equipped to run these experiments. Companies such as Nokia claim they cannot trace or confirm the source of the minerals used in our phones. The film’s conclusion: we all have blood in our mobiles.

Friday Photo (16) - Open-Pit Mining in Siberia

SIBERIA: OPEN-CAST MINING IN MIRNY
Geologists using their skills to access natural resources and contribute to economic growth, or an ugly, environmental problem? Which do you think? Is it as simple as one or the other?
Source: PARIS Jean-Daniel , LSCE/IPSL , Gif sur Yvette - France

In the News: Central and Latin America

The BBC have a number of very interesting stories on their news website relating to Central and South America, with three out of four of them related to legal and illegal gold mining:

NICARAGUA: How rainwater harvesting is helping Nicaraguan farmers... The construction of small earth dams to collect and store rainwater in the wet season is having significant benefits to crop-growers.

GUYANA: How Guyana gold mining threatens its green future... the conflicting prioritisation between economic growth and environmental protection.

PERU: Peru protests at huge Conga gold mine in Cajamarca... Concerns over water and envionmental pollution lead to protests in Peru over potentially lucrative gold mining, despite assurances by the company that they will meet strict environmental procedures and construct modern sustainable reservoirs for local communities.

COLUMBIA: Illegal gold rush sees Colombia's drug barons cash in... The high price of golf means armed drugs gangs are trying to influence and develop illegal mines in Columbia.

Friday Photo (10) - Small-Scale Mining (Tanzania)

We are well into our Friday Photo series, highlighting the work of geologists and the impacts of their work. Don't forget - if you have a photo you want to share - contact GfGD.

TANZANIA: SMALL SCALE AGGREGATE MINING
A small scale working of fairly high quality fine-grained sand
(c) Geology for Global Development 2011

 

GUEST BLOG: Rethinking Development in an Age of Scarcity and Uncertainty

Louisa Fearn is a third year undergraduate student at the University of Leeds where she is studying Environmental Geology. Below she reports on a recent conference she attended, sharing her insights as a geologist with a keen interest in international development.

"Last month I attended a conference on international development held at York University from 18th- 22nd September: ‘Rethinking Development in an Age of Scarcity and Uncertainty: New Values, Voices and Alliances for increased Resilience’ was jointly held by the DSA (Development Studies Association) and EADI (European Association of Development Research and Training Institutes).

The event, attended by 750 development academics and practitioners, was the largest gathering of its kind in 30 years. I worked in a team of 30 student volunteers that organised the running of the event, and in return could attend sessions fitting with my responsibilities.

Themes of the conference included climate change, migration, conflict, gender, research methods and governance. In addition there was a more discrete theme of lectures and working groups that all indirectly demonstrated the importance of geology as a discipline in international development. As a natural scientist, I was very much in the minority and one of the highlights was appreciating the differences between natural and social scientists and the challenges this creates when aiming for interdisciplinary work.

A few of the presentations focussed on the role of the extractive industry in development:

‘Constraints, Opportunities and Hope: Artisanal Gold Mining and Trade in South Kivu (DRC).’ Sara Geenen of University of Antwerp, Belgium. This was an excellent presentation, emphasising themes Joel brought up in an earlier post on the impacts of unregulated artisanal mining.

‘The Rhetoric and Reality of Transparency in Energy Governance: The Extractive Industry Transparency Initiative and Publish What You Pay Campaign.’ James van Alstine, University of Leeds. I could not attend this lecture but have met James who researches and works in corporate responsibility, seeking to establish informal and formal (Extractive Industry Transparency Initiative) rules to govern the impacts of societal and environmental impacts of oil, gas and mining companies.

Another lecture considering the extractive industry was from France Bourgouin, Danish Institute for International Studies:  ‘Mining for Sustainable Development? What Role for Multinational Mining Corporations in Resource-Rich Developing Countries.’ Using a case study of gold mining in Tanzania, France discussed the role of Barrick Gold in the development of the nation.

Perhaps the lecture I found most interesting was from Graham Davies of Colorado School of Mines in ‘Replicating Sachs and Warner’. A former metallurgical engineer now researching resource extraction and development, he discussed the possible reasons for poverty, ranging from the resource curse to geography, demographics and the potential for focussing on health and sanitation as a mechanism out of poverty.

I thoroughly enjoyed the event, and it gave plenty of scope for considering the role of a development specialist in geology, and indeed, the role of a geologist in global development."

Risky Gold Mining in Senegal

Calcite Deposits with some evidence
of minor gold veins (Chile)

The BBC recently produced a video report of 'risky gold mining' in Senegal, West Africa. The video highlight how individuals are coming from Senegal, and across the border from Mali to hunt for and mine gold. The report highlights the lack of all supervision, regulation and safety procedures - with miners at risk of serious injury or even death. It also highlights how mercury, used in the gold mining process, is also regularly added to the local stream - which is also their drinking water supply. This poses a further risk of serious illness to the miners, and other users of this water. As the community of miners expands there is also the risk of disease from poor sanitation practice. 

Small scale artisanal mining is widespread in many developing countries - providing an important source of income for many communities. However in many cases it is done in very poor conditions, and can be illegal. The risk of serious injury or diseases (such as highlighted above) can be significant. There are programmes working with some artisanal miners, to help protect them and improve their working conditions. For example,  DFID and the World Bank are involved in a "Collaborative group on Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (CASM)" that work to reduce poverty through improving the environmental, social and economic performance of artisinal and small scale mining in developing countries.   

Friday Photo (3) - Open-Pit Copper Mines

CHILE: CHIQUICAMATA COPPER MINE
By digged volume, the biggest open-pit copper mines in the world, and an empty town after residents were relocated further from the mine to protect their health
(c) Geology for Global Development 2011

Conflict Minerals in the DRC: Complexities in Development

Following on from last weeks article about the situation in Zimbabwe, I noticed that the Poverty Matters Blog on the Guardian website has an interesting article about conflict minerals in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). 

It outlines some of the deep complexities involved in development in such fragile states. Imposing measures to control the flow of minerals and precious stones are intended to avoid the continued funding of conflict in the region. This conflict has resulted in horrific damage to many communities and mass atrocities, driving people further and further into poverty. The consequence of placing restrictions on the sale of minerals, however, include a loss of income for small-scale artisinal miners, making it harder for them to earn a living. These complexities are an example of the difficult decisions to be made within development work.

Kimberley Process in crisis - Zimbabwe "allowed" to sell controversial diamonds

In a post written earlier this month I noted the important role geoscientists have to play in the location, extraction, processing and protection of natural resources - such as metal ores, fossil fuels and precious stones. Precious stones, such as diamonds, have long been associated not only with corruption but also conflict in many areas of Africa. The Kimberley Process is a scheme to certify diamonds coming from sources where they are not used to fund conflict by rebel groups against legitimate governments. 

Diamonds have been used to fund conflicts and cause devastation in, amongst others, countries such as Sierra Leone, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Angola in the past. Commonly known as 'blood diamonds' - these stones have a significant role in widespread human rights abuses, deepening poverty and widening inequalities. Geologists and gemmologists play an important role in characterising diamonds from different locations and recognising key identifying features to help in the monitoring process. The Kimberley Process had the potential to make a large difference to global development if it works effectively, and is wiling to reularly review its mission. 

It is sad therefore, to see evidence of the Kimberley Process falling short of its role and responsibility through a statement that appears to allow exports of diamonds from two fields in Zimbabwe that were reportedly seized by the Zimbabwean military. The decision by the current Kimberley Process Chairman from the DRC to go against protocol in ensuring a unanimous consensus, instead using a majority vote to justify this decision is worrying. Opposition from the EU, USA and Canada has been joined by concern from the Zimbabwean Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), as reported by the New York Times. Zimbabwean Finance Minister, a prominent member of the MDC, has questioned the validity of the majority vote, and others in the party are reported to be deeply concerned that money from the sale of these diamonds will be used by the military to fund violence against the MDC in future elections, in order to prop up the Zanu-PF party of Robert Mugabe.

This decision is a clear sign that it is time to update the Kimberley Process to include not only diamonds funding abuses by rebel groups against a legitimate government - but also diamonds funding abuses by governments against their own people. The UK government have stated that they are "deeply concerned" by this statement. We would urge the Foreign Office and EU Foreign Affairs Chief, Cathy Ashton, to push for a clarification of the 'unanimous' rule of the Kimberley Process, and seek a change to its rules and mission to ensure it retains the required credibility for this process to work.


Read More: FCO Conflict Minerals

Key Themes: Natural Resources

Native Gold

The 'Key Themes' posts are a series of short articles outlining the role that geologists have in various aspects of global development.

Natural resources include things such as precious metals, rare earth metals, base metals, industrial minerals, gemstones, fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) and construction materials (aggregate, sand, clay, limestone). These materials are found in various types, proportions and qualities across the globe. The natural resources of a country can contribute significantly to its economic development through increasing production and manufacturing, securing energy supply, increasing export revenues and reducing costs for local businesses and households.  

Chile: Copper Mine

The extraction of natural resources can be done on a number of scales. Large scale mining is heavily mechanised, productive and normally involves a large global consultancy or mining company. Small-scale mining is done by local people, working with limited tools, in difficult conditions and low productivity. Artisinal mining or subsistence mining is done by individuals - panning gold, generating aggregate etc. It is often done in poor conditions, and can be illegal. DFID and the World Bank are involved in a "Collaborative group on Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (CASM)" that work to reduce poverty through improving the environmental, social and economic performance of artisinal and small scale mining in developing countries.  

What role do geologists have to play in this sector?

Geologists have a crucial role in locating, extracting, processing and protecting the natural resources that our economies and lifestyles are reliant on. 

Chile: Mapping of calcite veins

Locating: Geologists use a wide range of techniques to identify economic reserves of minerals and fossil fuels. These techniques can include a desk-based review of the geology (predicting possible reserves), geological mapping of surface outcrops, correlation of borehole logs, geophysical techniques, geochemical analysis and remote sensing. 

Extracting: Geologists work on extracting the mineral/fossil fuel through effective planning. Mining and engineering geologists use their skills in rock mechanics, tunneling and slope stability in order to design opencast and deep mines. Hydrogeologists work to ensure mine waste and materials don't contaminate local water supplies. 

Processing: Many materials are extracted in an impure state and need further processing. geologists can be involved in the analysis of material, determination of its quality and the extraction of further materials to be used in the processing of the material.

Protection: Geologists must play a crucial role in ensuring that the extraction of natural resources is done in a safe and sustainable way. Geologists must ensure that groundwater and soils are protected from contamination, employees are working in a safe environment (not at risk of mine collapse, poisonous gases etc) and resources are being used in a sustainable manner. Natural resources are finite, and thus will run out.

Geologists also have a role in protecting the development of the wider community, through standing against corruption at all levels. Those extracting the minerals/fossil fuels will normally pay fees to the host country government, a valuable source of income that should be reinvested into education, healthcare, water and sanitation and infrastructure. Corruption, however, means that sometimes this money ends up in private bank accounts. An open and accountable attitude within the sector would do a lot to improve this state of affairs. If mining companies, for example, declare the fees they pay to the government - local people can hold them to account to make sure they are getting the best deal, and are investing the money wisely. The NGO Tearfund are campaigning for a change in the law to make this declaration of payments compulsory. 

Further Reading

> Design and Pilot Implementation of a Model Scheme of Assistance to Small Scale Miners (Prepared for DFID)

> Artisinal & Small Scale Mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo

> Mining & Poverty Reduction

Case Study: Building Institutional Capacity in Afghanistan

Afghanistan is regularly in the news as a result of the ongoing conflict in the region. It is also a major beneficiary of development aid, as countries and international organisations aim to help redevelopment and reduce poverty in the region after years of oppression and conflict. Geologists are playing a significant role in this development, and have the potential to bring real hope and development to the people of that nation. Both the British Geological Survey (BGS) and the United States Geological Survey (USGS) have been involved in supporting development in Afghanistan, working with their respective national aid agencies (DFID, USAID respectively). 

The BGS has supported the development of the Afghan Geological Survey with a focus on its mineral resources. Afghanistan has a rich and diverse mineral potential - ranging from energy resources to base metals, precious metals and stones. Many of these mineral resources are undeveloped, meaning they offer a good revenue to support the development of the country. The BGS has been working to strengthen the Afghan Geological Survey, empowering them to identify these resources and plan the sustainable exploitation of their own natural resources. The work of the BGS has included improving their staff's english speaking and computer literacy, helping them develop laboratories and databases, and  training staff in the skills of geological analysis. 

Source: Wikipedia

The USGS has undertaken a range of projects, including building institutional capacity, developing energy and mineral resources, developing water resources, and examining geohazards in the region. Their work on geohazards has included analysing the seismicity of the region, and producing seismic hazard maps for Afghanistan. These are fundamental to ensuring construction and redevelopment is done to an adequate standard - ensuring the risk of serious structural failure is minimised. There is a significant risk of medium to large earthquakes in the east of Afghanistan. From 1980-2008, the cost of earthquake (and related disasters) damage was around 144million dollars, and the number of deaths was in the region of 13,500 (USGS). As urbanisation grows and development occurs, this must be done in a way in which the seismic risk is recognised and incorporated into design. If this is not the case then the figures stated earlier could be significantly greater. 

Geologists from both of these organisations have played a significant role in the development of Afghanistan, and empowerment of geologists in this country. It is likely that both Afghan national geologists and international geologists will play a major role in the continual development of this nation.