GfGD Archive: Key Themes

Happy New Year, and welcome to 2012. This is not only the first post of 2012, but also the final post looking back at our archives before new posting begins later this week. Today we republish some of the 'key themes' series of blog posts written earlier this year - outlining ways in which geoscientists can contribute to global and international development. The 'Key Themes' series of posts, which can all be found here, include posts on water and sanitation, infrastructure, climate change, natural resources, geohazards and agrogeology. We hope to add to these themes with some posts on geotourism later in the year.

As we continue to develop Geology for Global Development and the blog this year we hope to continue to highlight ways in which geologists can and are already using their skills to fight poverty and improve lives across the world. Please do get in touch with pictures, guest blogs or article suggestions.

Key Themes: Overview

You can now read the whole series of 'Key Themes' post here. The 'Key Themes' posts are a series of short articles outlining the role that geoscientists have in sustainable international development and reducing poverty.

(1) Water & Sanitation

Geologists play a crucial role in the discovery, access and sustainable management of clean water supplies through the study and application of hydrogeology. Access to clean water, and safe sanitation, brings improvements to health, education, earning potential and many other factors.

(2) Agrogeology

Food security is a huge and emerging problem facing global development. Huge numbers of people are already undernourished, and world populations are expected to rise significantly over the next 40 years. Sustainable agriculture is fundamental to global development. Agrogeology is the application of geology to agricultural practice, examining how soil nutrients, pH and soil structure can be improved using naturally occurring, mineral-rich rock materials

(3) Geohazards

Geologists have a crucial role in studying and analysing the causes, mechanisms and impacts of geohazards. Geologists use their field skills to examine areas, which are prone to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, subsidence etc. Their knowledge can be used to generate hazard maps, inform the insurance industry, and help communities adapt to reduce the impact of the hazard.

(4) Climate Change

Geologists play a significant role in modelling the impacts of future climatic conditions and impacts through their research into palaeoclimate. Geologists also have a role in both understanding how climate changes will impact on several key areas, and what can be done to adapt/mitigate/reduce the impacts within these areas - areas such as coastal erosion, flooding, groundwater and geohazards.

(5) Natural Resources

Natural resources include things such as precious metals, rare earth metals, base metals, industrial minerals, gemstones, fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) and construction materials (aggregate, sand, clay, limestone). Geologists have a crucial role in locating, extracting, processing and protecting the natural resources that our economies and lifestyles are reliant on.

(6) Infrastructure

Physical infrastructure includes those things needed for society or enterprise to grow and flourish, and the economy to grow. It includes transport networks such as roads, airports and dockyards; energy networks such as power grids; telecommunications networks; solid waste management and water  management. Geologists are involved in investigating the ground conditions, identifying hazards and determining routes and locations to ensure effective and safe design.

Key Themes: Infrastructure

Tanzania: Roads Agency

The 'Key Themes' posts are a series of short articles outlining the role that geologists have in various aspects of global development.

The sixth ‘Key Theme’ in which geologists have a significant role to play in reducing poverty, contributing to sustainable international development and improving lives is in the development of infrastructure. Physical infrastructure includes those things needed for society or enterprise to grow and flourish, and the economy to grow. It includes transport networks such as roads, airports and dockyards; energy networks such as power grids and pipelines; telecommunications networks; solid waste management and water management.

A joint report by the French Development Agency and World Bank has outlined the significant investment required in African infrastructure alone… a huge £93million per year, of which a third is for maintenance of existing infrastructure. This figure includes the cost of transport, power, water and communications networks. The physical geography of Africa, remoteness of communities and lack of competition means that there are significant logistical and financial challenges to developing infrastructure.

Infrastructure, however, is responsible for a significant proportion of Africa’s economic growth over recent years. From 1990-2005 it is believed that more than a half of the economic growth seen was as a result of investment in infrastructure, and the World Bank suggests that this percentage could grow further. The Millennium Development Goals suggest that economic growth of developing countries should be around 7% per year, figures were around 5% a year before the current global financial crisis. Continued investment in infrastructure could help countries move towards this 7% per year growth target.

Infrastructure is also hugely significant for human development. Power networks can lead to improvements in business, health and education. Safe and clean water supplies and sanitation save time, money spent on healthcare and prevent diseases. Transport networks improve businesses, increase markets and improve the flow of goods and food across the country. 

The table below (click to enlarge), from the UN Africa Working Group (2007) show the significant role various aspects of infrastructure have on the Millennium Development Goals.

What role do geologists have to play in this sector?

Geologists have a significant role in various aspects of infrastructure development as outlined below:

Tanzania: Road
Construction

Transport Networks:  Engineering geologists are involved in investigating the ground conditions, identifying hazards and determining routes and locations for major transport networks such as roads, airports, dockyards and canals. Investigations of ground conditions help effective and sustainable design of structures and components of structures (for example foundations, slopes etc) ensuring networks are safe and long lasting. The identification of hazards such as slope stability, seismic risk, contamination of groundwater and subsidence are carefully considered and analysed, and appropriate measures are put into place to mitigate against failure. Design of routes is based on the results of geological, geotechnical and geomorphological mapping. Geologists can also play a crucial role in the design and construction of tunnels, and the identification of local raw materials to reduce the cost and environmental impact of the structure.

Energy Networks:  Geologists play an important role in the design of pipeline routes, ensuring hazards such as subsidence; seismic hazards and unstable slopes are identified. Foundation design and ground investigation for large power stations, environmental impact assessments for hydroelectric schemes and design of renewable resources such as geothermal power can also be addressed by those with a geoscience background.

Communications Networks:  Issues such as foundation design and geohazards assessment are crucial for many aspects of telecommunications networks – including radio-masts, and undersea fibre-optic cables, as well as large buildings and structures.

Solid Waste Management:  Design of landfill systems to prevent leaching of material into potable groundwater, and the build up of explosive gases. Identification of geologically stable sites for hazardous waste.

Tanzania: Water Pipe

Water & Wastewater Management:  As outlined in a previous ‘Key Theme’ discussing water resources, geologists have a significant role in the location, extraction and management of groundwater. In addition to the points raised in this Key Theme, there are additional roles for geologists with regards to the infrastructure required for provision of water and sanitation systems – in particular with regards to urban areas. The design of sewer systems requires extensive geological and engineering knowledge, as does the design of water pipelines (for those reasons set out for the design of energy pipeline routes).

Key Themes: Natural Resources

Native Gold

The 'Key Themes' posts are a series of short articles outlining the role that geologists have in various aspects of global development.

Natural resources include things such as precious metals, rare earth metals, base metals, industrial minerals, gemstones, fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) and construction materials (aggregate, sand, clay, limestone). These materials are found in various types, proportions and qualities across the globe. The natural resources of a country can contribute significantly to its economic development through increasing production and manufacturing, securing energy supply, increasing export revenues and reducing costs for local businesses and households.  

Chile: Copper Mine

The extraction of natural resources can be done on a number of scales. Large scale mining is heavily mechanised, productive and normally involves a large global consultancy or mining company. Small-scale mining is done by local people, working with limited tools, in difficult conditions and low productivity. Artisinal mining or subsistence mining is done by individuals - panning gold, generating aggregate etc. It is often done in poor conditions, and can be illegal. DFID and the World Bank are involved in a "Collaborative group on Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (CASM)" that work to reduce poverty through improving the environmental, social and economic performance of artisinal and small scale mining in developing countries.  

What role do geologists have to play in this sector?

Geologists have a crucial role in locating, extracting, processing and protecting the natural resources that our economies and lifestyles are reliant on. 

Chile: Mapping of calcite veins

Locating: Geologists use a wide range of techniques to identify economic reserves of minerals and fossil fuels. These techniques can include a desk-based review of the geology (predicting possible reserves), geological mapping of surface outcrops, correlation of borehole logs, geophysical techniques, geochemical analysis and remote sensing. 

Extracting: Geologists work on extracting the mineral/fossil fuel through effective planning. Mining and engineering geologists use their skills in rock mechanics, tunneling and slope stability in order to design opencast and deep mines. Hydrogeologists work to ensure mine waste and materials don't contaminate local water supplies. 

Processing: Many materials are extracted in an impure state and need further processing. geologists can be involved in the analysis of material, determination of its quality and the extraction of further materials to be used in the processing of the material.

Protection: Geologists must play a crucial role in ensuring that the extraction of natural resources is done in a safe and sustainable way. Geologists must ensure that groundwater and soils are protected from contamination, employees are working in a safe environment (not at risk of mine collapse, poisonous gases etc) and resources are being used in a sustainable manner. Natural resources are finite, and thus will run out.

Geologists also have a role in protecting the development of the wider community, through standing against corruption at all levels. Those extracting the minerals/fossil fuels will normally pay fees to the host country government, a valuable source of income that should be reinvested into education, healthcare, water and sanitation and infrastructure. Corruption, however, means that sometimes this money ends up in private bank accounts. An open and accountable attitude within the sector would do a lot to improve this state of affairs. If mining companies, for example, declare the fees they pay to the government - local people can hold them to account to make sure they are getting the best deal, and are investing the money wisely. The NGO Tearfund are campaigning for a change in the law to make this declaration of payments compulsory. 

Further Reading

> Design and Pilot Implementation of a Model Scheme of Assistance to Small Scale Miners (Prepared for DFID)

> Artisinal & Small Scale Mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo

> Mining & Poverty Reduction

Key Themes: Climate Change

The 'Key Themes' posts are a series of short articles outlining the role that geologists have in various aspects of global development.

Research into climate change and its impacts on communities across the world is currently being done by many institutions across the world, and eagerly awaited and examined by NGOs and government agencies. It is perhaps one of the biggest issues in this generation, with huge questions such as - what can we do, and how will it effect us?

Climate Change: Fact or Fiction?

There is significant scientific evidence that suggests that human induced climate change is a reality. There are natural fluctuations in the earth’s climate (leading to ice-ages etc)… however research suggests fairly conclusively that humans are accelerating climate change through the release of various emissions.

The Geological Society of London has released a briefing document outlining the geological evidence; this is aimed at non-specialists as well as geologists. It is available to read here. Geologists play a significant role in understanding past climates, and the patterns that occur over time. This understanding of the past aids the modelling of future climatic conditions and the impact changes may have.

How is climate change related to international development?

It is generally accepted that the carbon-footprints of people in developed countries are significantly greater than the carbon-footprints of people in developing countries. The UN has suggested that the world’s poorest produce a small fraction of the world’s greenhouse gases – as the graph below indicates.

From: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/air_co2_emissions.htm

Yet research also suggests that the effects and impacts of climate change will disproportionately affect the poor – that the poorest are the ones least able to deal with environmental change. Global warming, as well as changing temperatures, will lead to:

·      Higher sea levels and flooding of low-lying coasts

·      Changed patterns of rainfall

·      Increased ocean acidity

·      Decreased oxygen levels in the oceans

Adapting to these effects requires significant investment, well beyond the means of many developing countries. A publication by the Parliamentary Office of Science & Technology (Postnote No. 269, 2006) suggests developing countries would have to deal with the following environmental impacts:

·      Changes in rainfall patterns

·      Increased frequency and severity of floods, droughts, storms and heat waves

·      Changes in growing seasons and regions

·      Changes in water quality and quantity

·      Sea level rises

·      Melting of Glaciers

These impacts are likely to have result in changes to water resources, agriculture, human health, infrastructure, food security, settlements and natural disaster planning.

What role do geologists have to play in this sector?

As previously outlined geologists play a significant role in modelling the impacts of future climatic conditions and impacts through their research into palaeoclimate. Geologists also have a role in both understanding how climate changes will impact on several key areas, and what can be done to adapt/mitigate/reduce the impacts within these areas. A few examples of such key areas are listed below:

Groundwater: As global warming develops, how will this affect supply of groundwater and the quality of groundwater? How will sea-level rises change the salinity of coastal aquifers? The British Geological Survey are undertaking researching into questions such as these, you can read about the likely impact on groundwater supplies in Africa here.

Coastal Flooding & Erosion: Modelling of flooding, as a result of increase in sea levels is being done, as is an examination of how climate change will impact coastal erosion. Both of these can result in a loss of settlement and livelihoods – potentially driving problems in food and water security.

Natural Disasters: The effects of climate change on disasters ranging from floods and droughts, to wildfires and storms, to earthquakes and tsunamis is not altogether understood. Research indicates an increase in the unpredictability of rainfall in terms of intensity and duration – increasing the frequency of extreme droughts and floods. This post, written in February, highlights how historical changing of climate resulted in extremely severe droughts. 


Geologists also have a key role in ensuring that decisions made in this field are made on the basis of good science. A lot of processes are being attributed to climate change with very little or no scientific evidence. Climate change adaptations and work in communities to build resilience should be done on the basis of a thorough understanding of the area and science - otherwise they could increase vulnerability and do more harm than good. Climate change should be put in its proper context, alongside the various other hazards and vulnerabilities that communities face.

Key Themes: Geohazards

The 'Key Themes' posts are a series of short articles outlining the role that geologists have in various aspects of global development.


Communities across the world are affected by geohazards of one form or another. Earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, floods, and tsunamis are all hazards that can and have led to severe damage, loss of life and devastation for communities large and small. Other hazards such as tropical storms, droughts, and wildfires can also cause misery for many.

When natural hazards occur in populated places that are vulnerable to natural hazards they can result in a natural disaster. An earthquake occurring in an unpopulated area is not considered to be a natural disaster, whereas when a hazard meets vulnerability, such as the 2011 New Zealand earthquake occurring in the heavily built-up and populated Christchurch area, it is considered to be a natural disaster.

Damage to Christchurch Cathedral
From Gabriel,
www.flickr.com/photos/47407357@N07/5472981231

Disasters can result in all or some of, (1) Injury and loss of life; (2) Damage to buildings and structures; (3) Loss of crops, food and drinking water supplies. Often the initial hazard triggers or raises the probability (through increasing vulnerability) of other hazards, which will cause further damage and loss. An example of this can be seen by studying the Haiti earthquake, where damage not only occurred from the earthquake but also later cholera outbreaks due to poor water and sanitation conditions. In New Zealand some of the damage and fatalities were a result of seismically induced landslides.

Pakistan Floods
From: www.defenseimagery.mil/imagery.html#guid=
730d602e84cbb5b33869eee5ec814a81dc0bdd74

Natural disasters are in the news on a regular basis. The recent earthquake in New Zealand caused severe damage to the city of Christchurch, as well as loss of life. In the past year or so there have been landslides and floods in Brazil and Bolivia, severe flooding in Pakistan and Australia, and volcanic eruptions in the Philippines. Not to mention the large earthquakes in Chile and Haiti. This is by no means an exhaustive list of natural disasters in the 2010-2011 period.

Geohazards are a fundamental part of our world, and billions across the world are forced to live and work alongside them. Many organisations are working to better understand these hazards and reduce the vulnerability to them, in doing so reducing the level of disaster.

What role do geologists have to play in this sector?

Geologists have a crucial role in studying and analysing the causes, mechanisms and impacts of geohazards. Geologists use their field skills to examine areas, which are prone to, for example, earthquakes. Their fieldwork can be used to help determine the mechanism by which they occur, the frequency they occur and areas of ground that will be affected to a greater or lesser extent by an earthquake. In a similar way, geologists can also use their field skills to monitor and study volcanoes and landslide prone areas.

Greece: Fault Analysis

Geologists can also use their analytical skills, often combined with information from the field, to determine the probability of specific sized events occurring, within a given area – such as the probability of a Magnitude 8 or greater earthquake in an area. This information can be used to generate hazard maps, inform the insurance industry, and help communities adapt to reduce the impact of the hazard.

Key Themes: Agrogeology

The 'Key Themes' posts are a series of short articles outlining the role that geologists have in various aspects of global development.

Food security is a huge and emerging problem facing global development. Huge numbers of people are already undernourished, and world populations are expected to rise significantly over the next 40 years. Sustainable agriculture is fundamental to global development.

In Sub-Saharan Africa, estimates suggest that more than 50% of people rely on agriculture for their livelihood (Van Straaten, 2007) and in rural areas significant numbers are subsistence farmers – growing food to meet their family’s food requirements. Agriculture is a leading component of many developing economies. In Tanzania, for example, it is estimated that agriculture accounts for more than 40% of GDP and employs 80% of the workforce (CIA, 2011).

For agriculture to be sustainable, it must be done in a way that makes it possible to continue using the natural resource (the soil) over significant periods of time. The soil is the source of the nutrients needed for crops to grow, and agriculture to be productive. In many developing countries, soils are becoming rapidly depleted of the nutrients required for productivity, through over-exploitation, and soil quality is decreasing. For agriculture to be sustainable the import of nutrients must match or exceed the export of nutrients.

What role do geologists have to play in this sector?

Agrogeology is the application of geology to agricultural practice, examining how soil nutrients, pH and soil structure can be improved using naturally occurring, mineral-rich rock materials. Rocks such as potash, gypsum, limestone and dolomite are rich in nutrients and can be used as fertilisers – directly added to the soil. One of the biggest challenges is replacing and increasing phosphates in the soil. Geologists can play an important role in identifying, mapping and utlising phosphate-rich rocks. Rocks such as scoria and pumice can be used to help retain water in the soil, and rocks such as limestone and dolomite can be used to decrease the acidity of the soil, raising the pH.

A key text, Rocks for Crops, outlining the principles of agrogeology can be found here. It is written by Dr Peter Van Straaten, a leader in this field, who has kindly made it freely available for people to read and use.

See Also: Rocks for Crops – University of Guelph (Canada) Project headed by Dr Peter Van Straaten.

Key Themes: Water Resources

The 'Key Themes' posts are a series of short articles outlining the role that geologists have in various aspects of global development.

One of the biggest issues in developing countries is access to clean water and good sanitation. Current estimates suggest that nearly 900 million people lack access to clean water, and 2.6 billion people lack access to good sanitation.

Water is essential for life, in cases where communities don’t have access to clean water they are forced to drink dirty and dangerous water. This water can cause serious illness, sometimes leading to death. Many communities have to walk several kilometres to collect their water – in some cases this water is clean, in other cases it is unsafe but the closest or only water source around.

A lack of access to clean water also has a direct impact on many other areas of development. Usually it is women or children who collect the water, meaning children miss school and lose out on their education. Women lose out on income-generating activities, as they are devoted to collecting water, they make themselves vulnerable by walking to often-isolated places alone, and are forced to carry large volumes of water on a daily basis.

What role do geologists have to play in this sector?

Geologists play a crucial role in the discovery, access and sustainable management of clean water supplies through the study and application of hydrogeology.

Hydrogeology is the study of the distribution and movement of water below the surface of the earth. Groundwater is often preferred to surface water as it is generally protected from contamination that can occur on the surface. As the water percolates through soil and rock the water is filtered to remove contaminants. It is also protected from the high temperatures, and thus evaporation, that is common in many developing countries.   

Most groundwater is derived from rainfall, with some also coming from surface water features such as rivers and lakes. A proportion of rainfall infiltrates the ground, percolating through soil and rock to form underground stores of water in a particular rock/soil unit (known as an aquifer). A geologist has a role in locating these aquifers, determining how much water is in them and whether it is safe to use, and how they can be sustainably exploited.

An understanding of the geology of an area can give an indication of where water resources can be located, where to drill for water, and how deep to drill. Techniques such as geophysics can also be used to provide additional information and is making a huge difference to the drilling of boreholes across developing nations.